Moreno’s Theory of Child Development
Adapted from “Psychodrama: A Creative Method to Survive and Thrive” by Hod Orkibi, PhD

In Moreno’s spontaneity theory of child development, pregnancy is viewed as a warm-up for both mother and fetus that culminates in the cathartic moment of birth, which he described as “a primary and creative process. It is positive before it is negative, it is healthy before it is pathological, it is a victory before it is a trauma” Birth, therefore, is not a traumatic event but rather a victorious culmination of nine months of preparation. At birth, the newborn undergoes a profound transition from the confines of the womb to boundless openness, from darkness to a vibrant, illuminated world, from complete dependence on the mother’s nourishment to some level of self-initiated feeding. This abrupt shift requires rapid adaptation as the infant navigates new sights, sounds, and movements. Thus, for Moreno, the instant of birth represents the peak of readiness for the spontaneous act of entering a new environment that demands swift adaptation.

Unlike other vertebrates, human newborns are not self-sufficient. Human infants enter a complex and hazardous world before they are fully prepared, with an underdeveloped body and brain requiring extensive nurturing to survive. Moreno argued that the newborn goes through “changes from a situation which provides him [sic] with a safe equilibrium to a world which is to be conquered if he is to survive in it”. Nevertheless, in contrast to other theories of his time (e.g., Freud), Moreno argued that his theory conceptualizes the infant’s growth in positive terms of progression and achievements rather than in negative terms of retardation and regression. He emphasized the crucial role of spontaneity (the “S factor”) in enabling the infant to navigate experiences and situations for the first time, by likening the infant to an impromptu actor who explores uncharted scenarios.

The theory consists of three phases. The first phase, the “matrix of all-identity,” is an egocentric state where infants perceive themselves as inseparable from the universe (similar to the Freudian concept of age-appropriate primary narcissism), with no differentiation between people, animals, and objects or between the representation of objects (reflected images) and their actual nature. In this phase, all impulses are directed inward toward the infant, and most of the time, infants alternate between short periods of wakefulness and sleep. Thus, their experiences are predominantly physiological in nature, that is, not driven by conscious motives. Infants’ complete absorption in their current activity is the main reason for the underdevelopment of the past and future time dimensions and the centrality of the present moment, the here-and-now.

In the second phase of “differentiated all-identities,” infants start to differentiate between people, animals, and objects but are still unaware that they do not control them, and there is still no differentiation between fantasy and reality. Infants notice their mother (or primary caretaker) but do not yet understand that they are separate entities and still experience her as a dual entity in which they and their mother are one in a symbiotic relationship. The first and the second phases unfold in what Moreno calls the “first universe” of the infant.

In the third phase, which takes place in the “second universe,” typically around the age of three, young children become increasingly capable of forming mental representations of objects, experiences, and concepts, leading to the development of a distinction between fantasy and reality. This developmental shift is linked to cognitive maturation, which involves improved memory, language skills, and an emerging theory of mind that enables children to attribute mental states to themselves and others. As these abilities grow, so does the capacity to distinguish between imagination and reality, though some blurring may persist in early childhood, particularly during play and storytelling. This phase constitutes a profound existential shock as children begin to grasp the boundaries between their imagined world and actual reality. This realization can be unsettling since it challenges their previously fluid perception of reality and imagination. Zerka T. Moreno argued that “the organism of the child is driven by a hunger for action … he [sic] hungers to know what is going on about him, who and what is out there. He also wants to define his own position in space and to be affirmed as an entity”. Note that Moreno’s theory of child development does not specify months or years for each phase and is more of a conceptual framework associated with psychodrama practice.

This essay is adapted from “Psychodrama: A Creative Method to Survive and Thrive” written by Hod Orkibi , PhD, published by Cambridge University Press 2025.
The full text, including footnotes and references, can be found here.

Original artwork by Susan Aaron.